Movie making

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2010-04-21T08:52:00.001-07:00

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Creating Fine Prints

2009-12-31T00:56:00.000-08:00

Creating a fine print is a process with many steps. The first is producing the best possible negative to print the photograph as the photographer pre-visualized it. Once mastered, the Zone System allows photographers to consistently control the tonal range in the negative. It is formulated by Ansel Adams and Fred Archer in 1939/40. The Zone System is a set of techniques that allows photographers the greatest possible control over the characteristics of black-and-white film. The system works best with sheet film which can be exposed and developed one piece at a time. This film becomes the negative used in printing the photograph. A chemical process carried out in the dark which makes the image exposed on the film visible and permanent in negative form. The advanced Photography assignments are a continuation of the basic photography principals covered in beginning Photography assignments. Students will work independently to sharpen their journalistic, artistic, and commercial photography skills.

The attributes will be assessed by:
1. Spending Time
2. Using Rule of Thirds
3. Getting in Focus
4. Catching the Moment that tells the story
5. Dominant Focal Point using Leading Lines and high and low Horizon Lines
6. Frame the subject using horizontal, vertical, square and round (Vignette) formats
7. Proper exposure and development
8. Clean negatives and prints.

Zone System

2009-12-27T00:56:00.000-08:00

The zone system was invented by Ansel Adams which is one of the most famous photographers ever. The zone system is very simple and its principles are logical and easy to understand. Its scientific basis had been known long before Ansel Adams and Fred Archer hit upon the method in the 1940s.The zone system is made up of three basic components which were very important to Ansel Adams. They are visualization, exposure control, and contrast control. The difficult terms of zone are Visualization, exposure, and contrast controls are terms that are simple to understand. What can be confusing are the words Ansel Adams used to describe exposure and contrast control: Zone V or Zone III exposure, N-2 or N+1 development. The Brightness levels are a common mistake to think that you only take one exposure each time you press the shutter button. You take an exposure with a specific aperture and at a specific speed. The photographic film reacts to exposure. When film is developed, the blackness increases to a large extent in proportion to the exposure. A strong exposure (a white surface in sunlight) means that development heavily darkens the negative. An Ideal exposure film is going to be exposed in a camera; we have to make sure that the entire object’s individual exposure values fall within the film’s exposure latitude.

Making Black & White Prints

2009-12-24T00:55:00.000-08:00

The procedure for making a black-and-white print is relatively straightforward. It combines elements of the camerawork and processing necessary to form an image on film because printmaking actually consists of rephotographing the film image on a different material and processing that material. The enlarger from the lens to the baseboard is an open-sided camera working over a small range of image distances but with a relatively wide range of lens extensions. The Framing and focusing is the first step in making a print is to place the negative (usually in a strip), emulsion downward and with the image upside down, in the film carrier and locate the required frame in the aperture. With the masking frame adjusted to hold the required paper size the enlarger lamp is switched on and the head moved up or down the column to provide the approximate framing required. The enlarger lens is set to its maximum aperture and the focusing control operated to project a sharp image on the masking frame. This operation is critical but need not be accurately carried out immediately. The focusing affects the image size and a further adjustment of the framing may be necessary. Then focusing is carried out with great care. The eye must be trained to recognize the point of sharpest focus quickly and the operator must for that reason, accustom himself to picking out the detail in the image that is easiest to focus.

Materials for Black & White Printing

2009-12-20T00:55:00.000-08:00

The printing material is a paper or other base with a light-sensitive coating. Until comparatively recently, the base for black-and-white material was always a particularly pure form of paper coated with barium sulphate and other additives called baryta paper. Its disadvantage is that paper is a highly absorbent material needing a large volume of water to wash it free of the chemical solutions in which it is immersed during processing. The Resin coated versus fibre based papers solution was to coat both sides of the paper with a plastic sheet before laying down the emulsion. The solutions penetrate only the thin emulsion layer and are washed out with comparative ease. The advantage of RC material is too important to be dismissed lightly. The complete absence of an absorbent base is a tremendous step forward, totally eliminating the hazard of incomplete washing because of chemicals trapped in the material fibers. The consequent reduced washing times and rapid drying is at least a useful bonus. There are disadvantages for the small darkroom. The material tends to float on the surface of solutions and needs to be pressed down occasionally. That has to be done with care because the surface is fragile and easily damaged when wet. The special ink is required to mark the back of prints. The material is sensitive to direct heat, which can melt the coating.

Equipment for Black & White Printing

2009-12-12T00:54:00.000-08:00

It supplies a negative image from which a subsequent positive print is made. Film processing, as already indicated, is a purely mechanical process demanding no skill, artistry or other abilities or qualification. Printing is a very different matter. Just as anybody can develop a film anybody can make a print but very few can consistently make the best possible print from a given negative. The printing procedure is relatively straightforward and nobody need think that it is beyond them. All that is necessary is to project the negative image on to a base coated with an emulsion similar to that on the film (the printing material) and to develop the resulting latent image. In black and- white printing the image can even be seen building up. The photographic printing is now virtually synonymous with enlarging, owing to the small image size of most popular films. So the basic item of equipment for those who wish to do their own printing has to be an enlarger. The enlarger consists of a baseboard on which is mounted a vertical (or occasionally angled) column, with a sliding mount for the lamp house, film carrier and lens. The light from the lamp is spread evenly over the film by a condenser or pair of condensers.

High Temperature Processing

2009-12-06T00:54:00.000-08:00

The high-temperature processing is possible to all materials should preferably be processed at the temperature recommended by the manufacturer. Where ambient temperatures are high, processing should be delayed until the cooler evening or night hours or ice packs or other methods of cooling should be employed. When none of these methods is practicable high temperature processing is the only alternative. The twin dangers of high-temperature processing are chemical fog and damage to the emulsion from excessive swelling. They can be combated to some extent by restricting the alkalinity of the developer and adding sodium sulphate to reduce the swelling tendency. At temperatures up to 35°C, normal developers such as D76 can be adapted to high-temperature processing simply by the addition of a specified quantity of sodium sulphate. The Silver less monochrome images on conventional monochrome film is composed of minute grains of metallic silver suspended in a gelatin compound. It has been a satisfactory method of producing high quality images almost since photography began, but it does have its disadvantages. The function of the metallic grains is to stop light passing through certain image parts. This color film technology has now been extended to monochrome film and the 1980s will see the rapid introduction of totally new types of film such as Il ford’s XP1400 and Agfa’s Agfa pan Vario-XL Professional. Development time is the same, whatever the speed rating. Il ford’s recommended basic speed for XPI 400 is ISO 400/27°, with push processing possible for ISO 800/30° and 1600/33°.

Processing variations

2009-12-01T00:53:00.000-08:00

The time and temperature technique of processing is comparatively modern. In the pre-panchromatic film era, when films could be developed in red safe lighting, development by inspection was a common practice. The photographer watched the image build up on the plate or film and learned by experience to judge the exact time to stop development. Often it was the point at which shadow detail could be seen through the back of the material as it lay in the developing dish. This technique offered an in built compensation for exposure error and for the subject contrast. Such techniques are impossible with modern films and in fact are largely unnecessary. The older films were a great deal slower and responded much more readily to exposure and development variations. They had considerably less exposure and development latitude, particularly exposure latitude. To some extent it is still possible to shorten exposure and prolong development to increase contrast or to increase exposure and shorten development time to lower contrast but the variations need to be rather drastic and the results can be unpredictable. Normal exposure can be accompanied by increased or reduced development time to vary image density, and might have a marginal effect on contrast. The technique has no particular validity in extremely low lighting, except as a desperate measure because no support for the camera is available to allow a longer shutter speed to be used. Its true value is in capturing action shots in dull light.

Developing Film

2009-11-28T00:53:00.000-08:00

The film is loaded into the developing tank before or after the solution is brought to operating temperature depends on circumstances and individual methods of working. In any case, a final check of solution temperature must be made before it is poured. Loading a film spiral for the first time can be a nerve-wracking business or it can go with extraordinary ease only to lead to problems on the second or third occasion. The metal type raises no problem beyond making sure that the film is squarely located under the central clip. Thereafter, light pressure on the edges with forefinger and thumb bows it sufficiently to fall easily into the spaces between the metal coils as the reel is rotated. The plastic spiral is theoretically easier to load because it generally has an auto-loading system. Loading roll film is more or less the same procedure except that the backing paper has to be removed first. It is a matter of choice whether the paper is simply folded back and left until all the film is in the spiral or whether it is torn off as a first step. With modern very thin films the latter course may be preferable because the edge from which the paper is detached is thereby stiffened and is easier to push into the spiral.

Equipment for Larger - Scale Working

2009-11-21T00:52:00.000-08:00

The individual users of a relatively large amount of film can usually cope with processing in multitasks. Where processing is undertaken for more than one photographer or where sheet film is regularly used, a rather larger installation becomes necessary. The general practice in this case is to use large box like tanks with a capacity of about 7 or 15 liters. The tanks are available from many manufacturers in various forms and with their own individual refinements. Basically, however their construction is simple. The main requirements are that the material from which they are made should be reasonably robust, resistant to all photographic chemicals and totally opaque. A typical gas burst agitator to be fitted to IS-liter or larger tanks consists of a frame of six pipes with small perforations through which an inert gas (usually nitrogen) can be forced at intervals. The method is used for sheet film but is not considered suitable for roll and 35 mm films on spirals because the gas bubbles could be trapped between the closely-spaced film surfaces. The duration and frequency of the burst can-be critical for some processes. The duration is rarely greater than two seconds because a longer burst might create flow patterns that would lead to streaky or uneven -development. The frequency of, or interval between, the bursts depends largely on the process and the amount of agitation required.

Useful Accessories

2009-11-15T00:52:00.000-08:00

The useful accessories are really essential for black and white film processing but several other items may be found in the well-equipped darkroom. Some workers for example, have adapted their processing methods to those used for color work. There are various ways of mechanizing the routine, some elaborate, some quite simple. With modern small tanks this is usually achieved by inverting the tank two or three times at the end of each minute or so, but there are various power-driven machines on which the tank can be placed so that it rotates and either rocks from end to end or reverses its rotation ‘periodically. Washing the film is an important part of processing and there are various accessories to aid that routine from a simple length of tubing to lead water to the bottom of the tank to various designs to increase the water force and to mix air with it. After washing, the film has to be hung up to dry. Film clips are supplied for that purpose. Drying can be hastened by directing a hair dryer or fan heater on to the film but that can be asking for trouble. Any dust, fluff or other foreign bodies in the air may be driven into the emulsion with sufficient force to make it irremovable. Various designs of film-drying cabinet are available, most based on tall cupboard like containers, with gentle heat (from lamp bulbs, perhaps) at the bottom, protected from drops and with screened air inlets at the bottom and outlets at the top.

Temperature and timing control

2009-11-11T00:34:00.000-08:00

Processing tank is naturally the most important piece of equipment but various other items are necessary and there are a few others that can be used to make the process easier. A vital addition is a good photographic thermometer. The modern film processing is a time and temperature operation. A given film developed in a given solution has an optimum development time at a given temperature. The preferred developer temperature for black and white films is 20° C (68° F). Few photographic thermometers are in fact completely reliable, not even those certified as such. However, any error they may show is generally small and can be tolerated by black and white films if the processor takes pains, as he should do, to establish his own development times. If his thermometer has a significant error, he will find that the manufacturer’s recommended development time needs to be adjusted to his operating conditions. The spirit thermometers are perfectly suitable and in practice are generally preferable. The main function of the thermometer in black and white film processing is to check the developer temperature before it is poured into the tank. Some tanks allow thermometers to be inserted to monitor the temperature during processing. The photographic timer can provide the same facilities but the operator has to reset the time after each step in the sequence. The digital watches so popular and it is possible to use the elapsed time facility in a similar manner but on most watches that is much more troublesome to set than on a simple clockwork timer.

Film Processing

2009-11-07T00:29:00.000-08:00

The Black and White Film Processing Equipment of Current camera films is mostly small-format (35 mm or 6 x 6 cm). They are roll films up to 165 cm long which means that they can conveniently be processed only by suspending them in deep tanks or by coiling them into a spiral. The suspension method is rarely used these days because even where large tanks are the rule, it is preferable to put the films into spirals and suspend them in baskets. The film spiral is the basis of the most commonly used processing method. They are made of plastic or stainless steel. It has a diameter of 8-9 cm and is in the form of two grooved discs separated by a central core. The grooves are simply spaces between the spiraling steel or plastic and the film is slid or sprung into them in such a manner that successive coils are about 3mm apart. That is sufficient for the processing chemicals to circulate freely when the spiral is immersed in a tank. The film must be loaded into the spiral in darkness but once the spiral is in the tank and the lid is firmly in place light can no longer reach the film until the lid is removed after completion of processing.

Constituents of Fixer Solution

2009-11-01T00:25:00.000-07:00

The modern fixer constituents are the fixing agent, acid and a hardener. The fixing agent is generally sodium thiosulphate but ammonium thiosulphate is used in some faster-working solutions. The acid is commonly acetic acid but it cannot be used alone because the thiosulphates are rapidly decomposed by direct addition of any but the weakest of acids. The proportions of the various constituents are not critically important and innumerable formulae have been published with minor variations. Kodak’s F-5 is typical one. Acetic acid is usually supplied in the glacial form which is converted to 28 per cent by diluting three parts with eight parts of water. The boric acid is believed to increase the hardening capacity of the bath and to minimize the formation of aluminum sulphite sludge. The fixing time for this type of solution is generally quoted as 10 minutes with a clearing time of 5 minutes. The Rapid fixers based on ammonium thiosulphate are available from most manufacturers but their formulae are not generally published. There was a suspicion when they were first introduced that they did not provide stable images and some also seemed to exhaust rapidly. The suspicion has slowly evaporated and appears. In fact it is not to have been soundly based. The arguments for and against ammonium thiosulphate depend ultimately on speed of reaction. The fixing time is reduced dramatically from 10 minutes to perhaps 90 seconds or less but there has to be some doubt about the efficiency of the hardening process. If speed is paramount and hardening is not vital then the ammonium thiosulphate solutions are invaluable. For many workers however, the longer fixing time is better suited to their working methods.

Film Fixers

2009-10-27T00:24:00.000-07:00

The fixer came a lot later than the developer. The first attempts to use the blackening of silver salts by light in any sort of artistic manner date back to the early eighteenth century but the developer did not begin to make an appearance until Daguerre used mercury vapour to make a latent image visible. In the meantime, various pictures had been produced but attempts to make the image permanent had not met with much success. The main function of the fixing solution is to facilitate the removal from the emulsion of silver halides that have not been affected by light. If they are not removed they will eventually blacken and obscure the image. The manner in which the fixer accomplishes this task is not a simple one. It converts the halides into soluble silver compounds but the conversion is a two-stage process. The first stage produces a compound that is barely soluble and is also unstable. Only after that stage is passed are the complex soluble compounds formed that can eventually be removed by washing. The capacity of a fixing solution is very difficult to determine. It is evident that the more work it has to do, the sooner the fixer is exhausted. That may account for the recommendation by one authority in the 1950s that for an eight-exposure spool, at least 60 oz of fixer should be used and then discarded. The pH should be around 4.2 to 4.6. If it is higher than 4.6 an appropriate quantity of acetic acid could be added but when working with small quantities it is more practicable to discard it.

Developers for Contrast Control

2009-10-20T00:20:00.000-07:00

The developers mentioned so far are used in general photography of subjects in reasonable lighting and with a normal distribution of tones. There are other forms of photography for which it may be desirable to use developers that produce low-contrast or high-contrast images. Specialized graphic-arts work is an obvious application for high contrast. Frequently, high-contrast films are used and the developer is required to produce only one tone and maximum black. The soft-working developers already mentioned generally use metal as the developing agent and a mild alkali. For more energetic working, hydroquinone is preferred with sodium carbonate or hydroxide as the strong alkali content. Very-high-contrast materials require developers based on hydroquinone and sodium hydroxide. These solutions do not keep very well and are generally made up in two parts. Designed for process materials, the ID13 developer is composed of equal parts of solutions A and B, mixed immediately before use and then discarded. The development times at 20° Care 2-3 minutes. The opposite requirement for low contrast, occasionally arises for inherently contra sty subjects in brilliant lighting. A popular formulation for that purpose is a simple metal-sulphite type (example: Agfa 14). Their development times at 20° Care 10-20 minutes, according to film speed and contrast required. The high-contrast and low-contrast developers are now used for specialized applications and by a few enthusiastic perfectionists.

Acutance Developers

2009-10-15T00:19:00.000-07:00

A popular developer very many years ago was a simple metal-sulphite-carbonate solution which is commonly known as the Beutler formula. It is used at a dilution of 1: 10 as a one-shot developer, times of 7 -10 minutes were average, giving soft and finely-detailed negatives. This effect became known as acutance or the adjacency effect or more simply, high definition. It makes the image look sharper. The extra sharpness is an illusion. The Beutler developer and the many later formulations under the acutance or high definition label make use of the adjacency effect to present greater visual sharpness, although the actual resolution of fine detail might be lower than that produced by the orthodox developer. Acutance developers rarely contain a restrainer because it is considered that such an addition would inhibit the adjacency effect. Nevertheless, alternative formulae by Geoffrey Crawley use potassium iodide in minute quantities. It is used once only at 200 C, FX-1 gives development times of 12-15 minutes. Effective film speed is said to be increased by 1; 2-1 stop. There are many branded acutance or high definition developers and they have a valid use. They are not formulated for general purpose working. They are not fine grain developers. Ideally, they are for use with inherently fine grained films of a lower rated speed than ISO 100/210 and with first class lenses on both camera and enlarger. Exposure and processing must be exact.

Developer Types

2009-10-07T00:14:00.000-07:00

Developers can be roughly divided into various categories such as fine-grain, low-contrast, acutance, high-contrast, etc. The term fine-grain is now in fact obsolescent. The advances in emulsion manufacture have been such that the use of special developer formulations to make the necessarily granular structure of the image less evident in the print is totally unnecessary. The slower films are truly fine-grained and 35 mm negatives can be enlarged a long way beyond the requirements of most users before any really obtrusive graininess becomes evident. The standard developer formulation for use with all types of black-and-white continuous tone films (as opposed to line, copying or graphic arts films) is the metal-hydroquinone (MQ) or Phenidone-hydroquinone (PQ) plus borax type, characterized by the now almost historic ID 11 from Il ford or D76 from Kodak. The used undiluted gives development times at 20° C of 6-9 minutes according to film speed. There are many closel related variations of the standard formula. A buffered version (example: increases the 2 g of borax to 8 g and adds 8 g of boric acid). The main advantage claimed for this version is that its activity is more constant throughout its life, whereas the basic version tends to increase in activity with standing. Most of these solutions necessitate prolonged development times and also incur the penalty of a reduction in effective film speed.

Developer constituents

2009-10-04T00:11:00.000-07:00

The developers are chemical solutions, sometimes simple, sometimes rather more complex. The four most important chemical constituents in a developer for black-and-white films have accepted labels, apart from their chemical names. The Developing agent should be the preferred term because there are innumerable reducing agents (chemical solutions that can reduce silver halides to metallic silver). The requirement for a developing agent, however, is that it shall reduce light-struck grains much more rapidly than those that have received no light, preservative, accelerator and restrainer. All developers must also contain a solvent and that is almost universally water. So given proportions of four readily-obtainable chemicals dissolved in water can form a developer. In practice, the solution is more likely to contain five chemicals because as we shall see, metal and Phenidone work best in conjunction with hydroquinone. The Metal and Phenidone work in similar ways. They produce an initial density rapidly but do not build to a high density. It is used as the only developing agent they produce soft but fully detailed images. The hydroquinone is used as the only developing agent has the opposite tendencies. It is slow starting but eventually builds to a high density in highlight areas. The image is generally too contra sty for normal use. Used together in suitable proportions, however, metal and hydroquinone, or Phenidone and hydro quinine bring the best out of each other to form fully detailed negatives of adequate density in a reasonable time.

Film speed or sensitivity

2009-09-29T00:10:00.000-07:00

The sensitivity of the film to light is prescribed by the manufacturer. It is obviously of importance in assessing the camera exposure and also needs to be known to the film processer, because it affects the processing time. Generally, film sensitivity depends on the size of the silver halide grains in the emulsion. Larger grains lead to higher sensitivity, which means that less camera exposure is necessary. An indication of sensitivity or speed is given on every film carton in the form of an ASA or DIN figure or both. The figure is simply a guide to a relative position on a scale. It does not carry any such description as ‘speed’ or ‘sensitivity’. The usuarinscription is recommended meter settings, meaning that any meter used to assess the camera exposure should be set to that figure. This is because the sensitivity of an emulsion cannot be stated in isolation. It depends on other factors, the most important of which is the processing. The ASA scale of film speeds is arithmetic. A doubling of the film-speed figure indicates a doubling of film speed or sensitivity. The DIN scale is logarithmic. A doubling of the film speed is indicated by an increase of 3 in the DIN figure. Use of the DIN scale is confined largely to Continental Europe. Most of the rest of the world uses the ASA scale.

Film Developers

2009-09-19T00:07:00.000-07:00

The image on a film is formed by the action of light on materials coated on the film surface. That is not enough in itself to form a usable image, so the effect has to be amplified. There is a parallel with the electrical signals picked up by a radio receiver or from a tape or disc player. They are much too weak to provide sufficient power to drive a loudspeaker, so they have to be amplified. The electrical signals are amplified by electronic means. The effect of light on films is amplified chemically. The image is formed by a plastic strip coated with a light-sensitive material called the emulsion. It is actually a suspension of tiny grains of a silver compound in gelatin. The emulsion is microscopically thin but the silver halides within it are too small to be seen even by the ordinary microscope. Consequently they are suspended at various depths within the emulsion and can overlap. It is the silver halide grains that are light-sensitive and the gelatin is simply a binder. Light reflected from the subject is picked up by the camera lens and projected to form an image on the film. The image consists of various densities of light representing the darker and lighter parts of the subject. The silver halides are affected by the light according to its intensity. The whole of a grain or only part of it may be sufficiently affected to contribute to the image. Grains at various depths within the emulsion are affected according to how far the light penetrates. The stronger the light, the deeper it penetrates into the emulsion.

Photographers Satisfaction

2009-09-10T00:03:00.000-07:00

The Photographers process their own films mainly for personal satisfaction. There is a sense of achievement in carrying an operation through from beginning to end. In many cases, a skilled processor or printer could perform the tasks more efficiently and provide a better end product but he cannot give the photographer that pride in something that is all his own work. Many are interested only in operating the camera and refuse to be involved in any way with the tiresome processing stages. The Specialization makes sense in the business world. Taking photographs, processing the film and selling the product are skills that do not necessarily have anything in common. It is reasonable to expect that the different skills required for each task might best be performed by different people. Many photographic businesses work in that way. On the other hand, photography is a business that can be carried out on any scale, large or small and it can certainly be a single-handed operation. Film processing is a simple enough procedure. For very many years now, it has been a purely mechanical process depending only on time and temperature. A certain amount of care is needed and cleanliness in working conditions is imperative but virtually no skill is required, even in color film processing. Experience can lead to the application of special procedures to overcome faults in camera operation or to obtain a particular kind of result, but the actual process of putting the film through the various chemical solutions is routine. All normal photographic films have to be developed in total darkness.

Darkroom

2009-09-01T23:56:00.000-07:00

Darkroom technique can perform all the steps from buying a roll of film to producing and mounting a finished print, making a proof sheet to judge negative quality and process all prints, film processing to make printable negatives from exposed film, enlarging and related techniques for accurate control over the final print, chemical mixing for economy and consistent results, darkroom safety to protect oneself and one’s equipment and Print mounting and finishing to present an exhibit or enter a photographic contest. The Film processing tanks and the different chemicals steps to bring out and stabilize the latent image made by light striking the film during exposure in the camera. The photographic paper and how light transmitted by the exposed and developed film forms a latent image on the paper which is then brought out and stabilized by chemicals. The enlargers machines for projecting light through negatives onto photographic paper, allowing control of image size and cropping to improve composition. To make a proof sheet and let each student makes one. Have some negatives on hand, with a good proof sheet for quality comparison. Also, have all the necessary chemicals prepared. If you’ve processed your own film, you have already prepared the stop bath and fixer. Mix the developer according to the instructions. Be sure to label jars as DEKTOL Developer, Stop Bath and Fixer. Make up a working solution by diluting your prepared developer with water as recommended on the package.